Spread of Marxism in Russia

The ideological prerequisite for the birth of Leninism.

After the 1880s, the spread and research activities of Marxism were very active in Russia, and a Marxist group, as a budding political party, was established. In the history of the development of Marxist philosophy, Plekhanov, a thinker with originality and various theoretical achievements, was the most important intermediate link connecting Marx, Engels, and Lenin. In 1882, Plekhanov translated the Manifesto of the Communist Party into Russian. In the preface written for the Russian edition, Plekhanov clearly pointed out that the proletarian party must be established to liberalize the proletariat itself through political struggle. In September 1882, Plekhanov, together with Zasulich, Axelrod, Deutsch and Ignatov, founded the Group for Liberation of Labor in Switzerland. The Group was devoted to translating and publishing important works of Marxism. During tsarist rule, the Group overcame many obstacles and successively translated and published more than ten works of Marx and Engels, including Manifesto of the Communist Party, Wage-Labor and Capital, The Poverty of Philosophy and Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy, which provided theoretical references for Russian revolutionaries to analyze the social situation in Russia by using Marxist theory. Plekhanov also wrote Russian preface and introduction for these works, to systematically explain basic theories of Marxism, help Russian vanguards to learn and master the basic theories and methods of Marxism, and promote the localized application of Marxism in Russia and increase its popularity. Lenin spoke highly of the Group for Liberation of Labor, saying that the Group nurtured a whole generation of Russian Marxists. Although Plekhanov later joined the Mensheviks and became a social chauvinist during the World War I, his contribution to the spread and development of Marxism in Russia should not be denied. Plekhanov’s Marxist research had a profound impact on Lenin. Lenin’s wife Krupskaya wrote in her memoirs that Plekhanov played a huge role in the growth of Vladimir Ilych and helped Lenin find the correct revolutionary path. Therefore, in Lenin’s view, Plekhanov was a brilliant Marxist leader.

The greatest contribution to the spread of Marxism in Russia was made by Lenin. Firstly, Lenin publicized Marxism by forming a Marxist group. Lenin entered Kazan University in 1887 to study law but was expelled from the school after taking part in the activities of students’ revolutionary group. From then on, Lenin began to study the works of Marx and Engels and gradually became a Marxist. In 1889, Lenin set up the first local Marxist group in Samara, to actively promote Marxism, conduct social surveys in rural areas, and study Russian farmers’ problems by applying the Marxist theory. Secondly, Lenin gradually developed Leninism during studying and adhering to Marxism. In 1891, Lenin seized an opportunity when attending the university graduation examination in Petersburg to establish contact with the Marxists there and entrust them to collect the works of Marx and Engels. In 1895, the Tsar suppressed the Union of Struggle for Liberation of the Working Class, St. Petersburg. Lenin was arrested and exiled to Siberia. During the three-year exile, Lenin paid close attention to the development of labor movements in Russia and the world, studied the Marxist theory thoroughly, read a large number of Marx and Engels’ works, including The Condition of the Working-Class in England, The Poverty of Philosophy, Manifesto of the Communist Party, Anti-Dühring and Capital, and also read Plekhanov’s works. Lenin developed a preliminary understanding of Marxist dialectical materialism, historical materialism, theory of surplus value and theory of scientific socialism, and argued in Marxism more firmly. In particular, the concepts of class struggle and violent revolution, the theory that the people are the main component and creator of history, the idea of eliminating private ownership and the theory of the dictatorship of the proletariat had great influence on Lenin’s future revolutionary activities and theoretical research. Lenin also used the basic theories and methods of Marxism to guide labor movements, and gradually formed and perfected Leninism in the process of criticizing various erroneous ideas such as Narodnism and “legal Marxism”, which were popular in Russia at the end of the 19th century. Finally, Lenin also laid a theoretical and organizational foundation for the establishment of a proletarian party by writing books and founding revolutionary magazines.

In 1898, struggle associations all over Russia held the First Congress of the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party in Minsk, announcing the establishment of the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party. However, the Congress did not draw up the Party’s program and constitution, and the elected central committee was soon destroyed by the Tsar government. In the harsh environment, Marxist groups throughout the country were still in a state of laxity, and the establishment of a workers’ party encountered great difficulties. In 1900, Lenin founded an illegal but a largely distributed all-Russian Marxist newspaper Iskra (The Spark) which was printed in Munich and smuggled into Russia, to unite a large number of staunch Marxists and making ideological and organizational preparations for the Second Congress of the Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party (held in Brussels and London successively from July 30 to August 23, 1903).